TRAINING MANUAL
Management
of Drugs at Health
Centre Level
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
Regional Office for Africa
Brazzaville
■
WHO/AFR/EDP/04.3
©
WHO Regional Office for Africa
(2004)
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Printed in the Republic of South Africa
inside front cover
TRAINING MANUAL
Management
of Drugs at Health
Centre Level
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
Regional Office for Africa
Brazzaville
■ 2004
■
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
ii
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. Management of drugs . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1
What is a drug? .......................................... 3
2.2
What is management?
.......................... 3
2.3
Why manage drugs? .............................. 3
2.4
Drug management cycle .................... 5
3. Selection of drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1
Criteria for selection of drugs........ 6
3.2
Basis for drug selection ...................... 6
3.3
Generic names
............................................ 7
4. Drug procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.1
Estimation of drug
requirements
..................................................
9
4.2
Determining drug types and
quantities required
.................................... 9
4.3
Delivery (lead) time ................................ 10
4.4
Monthly consumption .......................... 10
4.5
Request indicator (re-order).......... 12
4.6
Quantity to be requested .................. 13
4.7
Price of drugs .............................................. 14
4.8
Requisition, supply and receipt
of drugs
.............................................................. 15
4.8.1
Drug request .............................. 15
4.8.2
Completing stores requisition/
delivery (issue) form
.......... 16
4.9
Supply of drugs from medical
stores
................................................................ 18
4.9.1
Stores requisition/delivery
(issue) form ................ 18
4.9.2
Receipt of drugs at
dispensary .................. 18
4.9.3
Discrepancies when receiving
drugs .......................... 19
4.9.4
Transfer voucher or internal
drug return (IDR)
form ............................ 19
4.9.5
Procedure for supplying drugs
to health centre store .. 21
4.9.6
Drug donations .......... 21
4.10
Drug storage .............................................. 22
4.10.1
Proper drug storage ........ 22
4.10.2
Storage environment
.... 22
4.10.3
Arrangement of drugs
on shelves
................................ 22
4.10.4
The storeroom
.................... 23
4.10.5
The dispensary .................... 23
5. Drug distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
5.1
Rational prescribing .......................... 24
5.2
Content of a prescription ............ 25
5.3
Abbreviations commonly used
in prescriptions
...................................... 25
Table of Contents
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
iii
5.4
Dispensing drugs to patients ...... 26
5.4.1
Correct drug
dispensing
...................................... 26
5.4.2
Dispensing procedure ........ 26
5.4.3
Dispensing prescription
on part-payment
.................... 26
5.4.4
Guiding principles in
dispensing on cash
basis
.................................................... 27
5.5
Packaging of drugs for
patients
............................................................
27
5.5.1
Tablets and capsules ............ 27
5.5.2
Liquid preparations .............. 27
5.5.3
Labeling
............................................ 27
6. Use of drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.1
Rational drug use .................................... 29
6.2
Information to the patient
............ 29
7. Drug stock management
support tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.1
Consumption records to be kept
at the store
.................................................... 31
7.2
Entries to be made in stock
(bin) card
........................................................ 32
7.3
Consumption records at the
dispensary level
........................................ 34
7.4
Discrepancies .............................................. 34
7.5
Receipts for drugs dispensed ...... 37
7.6
Daily use/cash record .......................... 37
7.7
Financial record book ........................ 39
7.8
Summary of daily data flow .......... 40
7.9
Custody of cash ........................................ 41
7.10
Current capital situation
card (CCSC)
.................................................. 42
7.11
Monthly return form ..........................
43
7.12
Inventory form ........................................
44
7.13
Storage of documents ........................ 46
7.14
Security measures in the
dispensary
...................................................... 46
7.14.1
Doors, windows, roofs
and ceilings
.............................. 47
7.14.2
Safe and keys
.......................... 47
7.14.3
Watchman .................................. 47
7.15
Handing over the dispensary ...... 47
7.16
What to do in case of burglary 48
7.17
Supervision/inspection ...................... 48
7.17.1
Role of supervision/
inspection
..................................
48
7.17.2
Role of health
committee
.................................. 49
8. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
9. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
10. Annexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Annex 1 Sample pre-test
questions
...................................... 54
Annex 2 Sample post-test
questions
...................................... 61
Annex 3 Proposed training
outline
............................................ 68
Annex 4 Field visit checklist
.............. 72
Annex 5 Course evaluation
................ 73
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
iv
D
uring the Alma-Ata conference sponsored by United Nations Children’s Fund
(UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO) in September 1978, the availability
and accessibility of essential drugs were reaffirmed as basic components of primary
health care. The conference recommended that governments formulate and implement national
drug policies in order to improve their national pharmaceutical sectors. A year later, the thirty-
second World Health Assembly requested the Director-General to establish a special programme
on essential drugs that would assist Member States to develop and implement national drug poli-
cies. This request led to the creation of the Drug Action Programme now called the Essential
Drugs and Medicines Policy.
The Bamako Initiative launched by UNICEF and WHO in 1987 was a further step towards assisting
countries in ensuring regular access to health services in general and to essential drugs in particular in
a participative manner, especially at the community level. However, available drugs need to be well
managed in order to meet public health needs. The drug management cycle (i.e. selection, procure-
ment, distribution, use) with the appropriate management support services (i.e. organization, financ-
ing, information, human resources) and within an appropriate policy and legal framework contributes
significantly to getting the maximum output of limited resources available for essential drugs.
Despite the availability of numerous tools for the management of drugs, none of these specifically
targets the health centre level, particularly the health workers who have had no formal training in
drug management. Thus the WHO Regional Office for Africa started to develop this manual in
1996. After several reviews of the original script by outside consultants as well as staff in the Division
of Health Systems and Services Development in AFRO, the first draft was ready in July 1999. The
manual was field-tested in three Member States: Malawi in October 1999, the Gambia in August
2000 and Lesotho in October 2000.
The WHO Regional Office for Africa is making this manual available to Member States and is ready
to provide any assistance when requested in the use of this learning tool for the training of health
workers at the country level.
Dr Ebrahim Malick Samba
WHO Regional Director for Africa
Brazzaville
April 2004
Foreword
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
v
Gratitude is extended to the following authors of the manual:
Mr Wynn Charles Chalira (Malawi), Dr Moses Chisale (WHO/AFRO), Dr Philip Emafo
(Nigeria), Dr Rose Ngono Mballa (Cameroon), Professor David Ofori-Adjei (Ghana) and
Professor Andriamanalina Nirina Razafindrakoto (Madagascar), Mrs Helen Tata (Cameroun).
Governments of the Republic of Malawi, The Gambia and the Kingdom of Lesotho are thanked
for allowing field-testing of the manual, providing participants in the training programme and
other assistance.
Malawi Participants: Chima Samson, Kamtsitsi Prescort, Kamwendo Hastings, Kamwiyo
Anthony, Menasi R.A., Mwanamanga H., Thindwa Milliam, Kwenje Evelyn, Kandapo M.P.,
Nyirenda Florence, Ng’oma M., Makunganya J.E., Mwakibinga G.L., Liyao Patricia and
Chawirima Susan.
The Gambia Participants: Bakary Jargo, Alhagie Sawaneh, Modou L. Camara, Modou
Sowe, Samuel Bass, Anthony Mendy, George Bass, Bamba Janneh, Kebba Manneh,
Ansumana Drammeh, M’binki Sanneh, Kebba Gibba, Momodou Darboe, Kebba Sonko and
Jammeh Sillah.
The Kingdom of Lesotho Participants:Lucia Tabai, Nthabiseng Anna Kopo, Mantho L.
Matela, Mateboho G. Ntaote, Qents’o Sekoala, Limakatso Lechesa, Alice Masothoane,
Mantahli Idlett Sello, Julia Mamolati Nonyane, Mpho M. Semoise and Berlina Mpolelo
Ncamane.
To Mr Godfrey Kadewere (Malawi), Dr Mariatou Tala Jallow (The Gambia), Ms Markieu Janneh-Kaira
(The Gambia) and Mrs Masoko Nts’ethe (The Kingdom of Lesotho) assisted with the field-testing
exercises and are gratefully acknowledged. The staff of the WHO/AFRO Division of Health Systems
and Services Development are thanked for their valuable comments and suggestions, particularly Dr
Mahomed Belhocine for various written submissions.
The whole process was facilitated by Dr Moses Chisale, Regional Advisor for Pharmaceuticals in the
WHO Regional Office for Africa.
Acknowledgements
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
vi
Chapter 1: Introduction
Participants should understand the policy basis that has led to the development of the
manual: Alma-Ata, Essential Drug Concept, Bamako Initiative.
Chapter 2: Management of drugs
Participants should understand the importance of drug management and the main
elements of the drug management cycle.
Chapter 3: Selection of drugs
Participants should understand the drug selection process and the reasons for the ref-
erential use of generic essential drugs.
Chapter 4: Drug procurement
Participants should understand the drug procurement process and be able to calculate
the quantities to be ordered in a given situation.
Chapter 5: Drug distribution
Participants should understand the important elements of the drug distribution and
storage process and to correctly apply the various forms used in a drug store.
Chapter 6: Use of drugs
Participants should be able to correctly read a prescription, package, label and dis-
pense the required medication with the appropriate advice to the patient.
Chapter 7: Drug stock management support tools
Participants should become familiar with and correctly use various management
support tools, as well as know and apply security measures for the drug store.
Objectives
A
t independence, most African countries operated policies of free health care for all. With
the economic problems experienced in most African countries in the 1970s, this option was
no longer feasible. With the introduction of the essential drug concept in the early 1970s
and the publication of the first WHO model list of essential drugs, it became increasingly clear that
the scarce financial resources needed to be cautiously used in order to contain the increasing drug
costs and ensure sustained availability and accessibility of essential drugs. Such drugs are considered
necessary and vital for the health needs of the population; they should be available at all times, in
the proper dosage forms and at affordable costs.
Based on methodology used by the WHO, Member States have developed their own national essential
drug lists which are supposed to be reviewed regularly in order to improve drug supply. In 1987 the
Bamako Initiative was launched to involve communities in financing and managing their health care
needs; the essential drug component became a core and prominent issue of this initiative. The drugs,
delivery system and service deliver y must be efficiently managed, supervised and monitored.
Despite the availability of numerous tools on the management of drugs, none of these specifically
targets the health centre level, particularly the health workers employed at this level who have no
formal training in drug management. This prompted the WHO Regional Office for Africa to start
developing this manual in 1996.
A consultant prepared the preliminary draft and was later joined by five other consultants to
complete and re-write certain sections of the manual. The first complete draft was then reviewed
by the WHO/AFRO Division of Health Services and Systems Development. Following this review,
the manual was field-tested for a period of one week in each of the following Member States: Malawi
in October 1999, The Gambia in August 2000 and Lesotho in October 2000. The consultants who
prepared the manual also acted as trainers in this exercise. Some members of local pharmaceutical
departments in these countries also helped with the training.
The main purpose of the field-testing was to ascertain the suitability of the material for teaching drug
management to health workers who are given the responsibility of managing drugs, particularly at the
health centre or other similar level. Most of these health workers have had no formal training in drug
management.
The field-testing involved conventional classroom teaching methodology. A group of health care
personnel (15), mainly nurses and medical assistants working at the health centre, were the trainees
at each site. The exercise lasted 5 days.
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
1
Introduction
From the field-testing in the three countries, it was accepted that the manual is suitable for use
in the training of people handling drugs at the health centre or equivalent (e.g. clinics, lower
cadre attached to pharmacy depots and stores). The teaching should, however, be adapted to the
background of the students and should last for 8–10 days. The teaching should also be relevant
to the drug supply system operating in the individual country. If possible, local trainers should be
used after an initial orientation period. A minimum of two and a maximum of three trainers per
training session of 20 trainees are recommended.
The training should start by the administration of a pre-test and end with the administration of a
post-test and a training session evaluation. An outline based on the various chapters of the manual
should be prepared prior to the training. The training should include a one-day field visit to a health
centre and any other higher-level health facility. Trainers and any additional local facilitators should
have a pre-training meeting aimed at sharing the various chapters among themselves and discussing
how to specifically handle the technical issues in the various chapters.
Annexes to this present manual include proposed pre-test and post-test questions, a training outline,
evaluation form and a field visit checklist. These were used during the field-testing of the manual as
well as during the first training sessions in Malawi and Lesotho in 2001, and in Gambia in 2002. These
can be used in any training session, but appropriate changes need to be made for any specific local
training needs. Comparative pre-test and post-test results from the field-testing exercises in Malawi,
Gambia and Lesotho are also attached.
It should be noted, however, that while the pre-test and post-test include attitude questions, it is
the opinion of the authors that the content of the manual is factual and the design of the training
does not adequately cater for influencing or modifying the attitude of health workers towards
patients in the exercise of health-care duties. While attempts should be made to emphasize the
importance of a correct attitude towards the patient, it is felt that this should be dealt with during
the supervision process, without excluding the possibility of organizing special training or briefing
sessions on attitude.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
2
2.1 What is a drug?
A drug can be given three possible operational definitions:
■
a chemical substance that affects the processes of the body or mind;
■
any chemical compound used on or administered to humans or animals as an aid in the
diagnosis, treatment or prevention of disease, or other abnormal condition, for the relief of
pain or suffering, or to control or improve any physiologic or pathologic state;
■
a substance used recreationally for its effects on the central nervous system.
Since the advent of the essential drug concept, essential drugs have been defined by WHO as those
that are indispensable and necessary to satisfy the health care needs of the majority of the population.
They should therefore be available and accessible at all times, in the appropriate dosage forms and at
prices affordable to all. This definition does not in any way diminish the usefulness of any drug that
may not be on any given essential drug list. It is a conscious attempt to utilize available resources on
the most important drugs of benefit to the majority of the population while recognizing the competi-
tion in the public sector.
2.2 What is management?
Management is the act or art of being responsible or in charge and conducting or supervising some-
thing (e.g. a health centre pharmacy, business, public undertaking) with a degree of skill and address.
It is the judicious use of means to accomplish an end (i.e. public health). Management can also refer
to the collective body of those who are responsible for an entity (e.g. a health centre) or who exercise
executive, administrative supervisory and regulator y control (e.g. board of governors, village health
committee).
2.3 Why manage drugs?
Three reasons can be given to explain why drugs need to be managed properly. Firstly, drugs are part
of the link between the patient and health services. Consequently, their availability or absence will
contribute to the positive or negative impact on health. Secondly, poor drug management, particu-
larly in the public sector of developing countries, is a critical issue, but major improvements are pos-
sible that can save money and improve access. Finally, drugs are no longer the responsibility of health
workers only. Political, economic, financial and traditional considerations have become so crucial in
health care that it has become imperative to look at drugs and health care from these perspectives.
All of these factors contribute to appropriate financial expenditure, avoid wastage, increase access
and ensure that drugs are properly used. As is inherent within the Bamako Initiative, proper drug
management may also be a source of revenue, which can be used to cater for other health care needs
and in particular for disadvantaged populations.
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
3
Management of drugs
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
4
Drug Management Cycle
Policy and Legal Framework
The selection of drugs for use at health centres is usually determined at the national level by
the Ministry of Health and is based on a number of factors. After determination of the
quantities required, based on price, delivery conditions and quality, the selected drugs go
through a procurement process. After storage and distribution, the use of the drugs requires
prescribing, packaging, dispensing and counselling. These tasks require qualified health
workers or other relevant personnel with appropriate skills and attitudes. Management
support tools are important for the acquisition of relevant skills in drug management.
Source: Managing Drug Supply. MSH/WHO, Kumanian 1997.
Storage and distribution
Use
Selection
Procurement
MANAGEMENT SUPPORT
Organization
Financing
Information management
Human resources
Diagram 1
2.4 Drug management cycle
Drug management functions are undertaken in four principal phases, which are interlinked and are
reinforced by appropriate management support systems (i.e. tools). The following diagram (Diagram
1) illustrates the drug management cycle. From drug selection to drug use, passing through procure-
ment, storage and distribution, a whole range of management capacities are required and necessitate
using the appropriate tools within a given legal and policy framework.
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
5
Ministries of health normally determine the types of drugs and dosage forms that are selected for
use in a country. Such selections ensure that available financial resources are used wisely provide a
limited list of drugs and dosage forms that are appropriate to the health problems of a country or
community. All levels of health care institutions are, thus, catered to:
■
Primary,
■
Secondary
■
Tertiary.
3.1 Criteria for selection of drugs
Some criteria used in selecting drugs and their dosage forms, include the following:
■
Keeping costs of drugs and dosage forms affordable and cost-effective so as to optimize the
use of financial resources;
■
Having drugs available for the treatment of most prevalent diseases, ailments, sicknesses and
so forth at the levels of care provided;
■
Availability of safe, effective and good-quality drugs.
3.2 Basis for drug selection
Drugs are selected using the WHO Essential Drugs List as a model. Choice is based on:
National health policy
■
Free health care
■
Subsidized health care
■
Managed health care
National drug policy
■
Free drug policy
■
Subsidized cost of drugs or cost recovery
■
Cost sharing
Patterns and prevalence of diseases
Quality and type of care provided
■
Primary
■
Secondary
■
Tertiary
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
6
Selection of drugs
Available human resources
■
Medical care (general and specialist care)
■
Nursing care (nursing, midwifery, psychiatry)
■
Pharmaceutical care (pharmacists, pharmacy technicians, clinical nurses)
■
Financial resources.
International nonproprietary names (INNs), also known as generic names, are normally used in
identifying selected drugs. However, the choice of drugs by generic names requires the existence of
an effective Drug Regulatory Authority to ensure the availability of good-quality, safe, effective and
affordable drugs.
Health centres usually have between ten and thirty drugs from the national essential drugs list. This
small number of drugs makes procurement, storage and distribution easy. It also means that training
prescribers and dispensers can be focused on a small number of drugs. This gives them experience
with a smaller number of drugs and better recognition of adverse drug reactions. Patients’ knowledge
can be focused on the smaller number of drugs. This can improve adherence to instructions and
reduce confusion.
3.3 Generic names
The drugs on the essential drugs list are referred to by their INN or generic names. The generic name
is used in writing prescriptions as well as in purchasing drugs. The use of the generic name for these
purposes has certain advantages:
■
There is easy recognition of the type of drug, especially where many selected drugs exist in
that class (e.g. all benzodiazepines have INNs ending with “-zepam”);
■
Drugs can be purchased from multiple sources, thus giving the advantage of buying at a
competitive price;
■
Product substitution is easy where bio-availability presents a clinical problem;
■
The confusion associated with the use of brand names can be avoided.
Some people argue (without evidence) that generic drugs may be of poor quality. The quality of
drugs and dosage forms available in a country is dependent on the regulator y measures imple-
mented by the responsible authority. It is important to realize that quality control and naming of
drugs are separate issues. Indeed, some manufacturers sell their brand-name products under a
generic name at a lower price.
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
7
Examples of generic and brand names
Generic (INN) Brand Names
Acetyl salicylic acid Asprin®, Aspro®
Albendazole Zentel®
Ampicillin Penbritin®
Benzl benzoate Ascabiol®
Benzylpenicillin Megacillin®, Specillin®
Cimetidine Tagamet®
Clotrimazole Canesten®
Cloxacillin Orbenin®
Cotrimoxazole (sulphametoxazole + trimethoprim) Bactrim®, Septrim®
Dexamethasone Dectancyl®, Dexone®
Diazepam Valium®
Doxycycline Doxigram®, Monocline®
Griseofulvin Fulcine®
Ibuprofen Brufen®
Promethazine Phenergan®
Penytoin Di-Hydan®, Dilantin®
Phenobarbital Gardenal®
Propranolol Inderal®Paracetamol
Panadol®Salbutamol Ventolin®
Sulfadoxine + pyrimethamine Fansidar®
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
8
Procurement of drugs is based on selected drugs and dosage forms and available financial resources.
Procedures adopted in procuring drugs include:
■
Estimating quantity of each drug product required for a given period,
■
Finding out the prices of the different drug dosage forms required,
■
Allocating funds for each drug dosage form depending on:
■
Priority nature of the drug and dosage form,
■
Available finances.
Requisition for drug and dosage form is made after due consultation with prescribers.
4.1 Estimation of drug requirements
The estimate of the drug and dosage forms required for a given period is undertaken:
To avoid shortages (out of stock) and ensure credible health care ser vice,
To prevent excess stock and avoid waste (loss or mismanagement of financial resources).
4.2 Determining drug types and quantities required
Factors that influence choice and quantity of drugs include:
■
Population which the health institution serves,
■
Disease pattern,
■
Seasonal variation in disease pattern,
■
Monthly (rate of) drug consumption,
■
Knowledge of quantity of each dosage form that is regularly consumed,
■
Delivery (lead) time,
■
Time lag between placing orders and receiving the orders,
■
Request indicator (re-order level):
■
Quantity of drug product that serves as a signal for re-ordering.
The maximum quantity of drugs held in stock is determined by:
■
Distance from the central health services area or regional medical store,
■
Size of the health centre store,
■
Number of clients (patients) visiting the health centre.
In this section, three factors—delivery (lead) time, monthly consumption and request indicator—are
considered as the basis for calculating the appropriate quantity of a particular drug to be ordered.
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
9
Drug procurement
4.3 Delivery (lead) time
It is important to establish how long it takes to have a drug delivered and receipted in the store so
that the drug does not become out of stock. This period is called the delivery or lead time. Deliver y
time may be days, weeks or even months. Delivery time may be longer than two months because of
the following reasons:
■
Poor road conditions, particularly in the rainy season,
■
Poor condition of delivery vehicles,
■
Increased work load at the issuing store,
■
Nonavailability of adequate resources at the central store,
■
Consumption rate of drugs.
4.4 Monthly consumption
Monthly consumption may be collated with data obtained from:
■
Bin (stock) cards,
■
Daily use record, daily cash record,
■
Drug register.
Normally, monthly consumption is obtained by:
■
Calculating the average consumption over a period of time (e.g. six months)
■
Or dividing the total consumption over the period by the number of months the drug
dosage form was consumed.
Example 1: Monthly consumption
The first method of calculating monthly consumption is to add the quantity of drugs in stock at the
beginning of a period (e.g., six months) to the quantity of drugs received during that same period and
then subtract the quantity of drugs remaining at the end of the period.
April 2000, quantity of paracetamol 1,000 x 500-mg tablet containers in stock = 14
June 2000, quantity of paracetamol 1,000 x 500-mg tablet containers received = 8
September 2000, quantity of paracetamol 1,000 x 500-mg tablet containers, remaining stock
= 6
Therefore, total quantity of paracetamol 1,000 x 500-mg tablet containers consumed over a
six-month period = 14 + 8 – 6 = 16.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
10
Average monthly consumption = 16/6
Average monthly consumption to the nearest container = 2 2/3
Example 2: Monthly consumption
A second method of calculating the average monthly consumption is to obtain data on consumption
from the bin card on a monthly basis and then find an average over a period of time.
April 2000 2 x 1,000 tablets
May 2000 4 x 1,000 tablets
June 2000 2 x 1,000 tablets
July 2000 2 x 1,000 tablets
August 2000 3 x 1,000 tablets
September 2000
3 x 1,000 tablets
16 x 1,000 tablets
Average monthly consumption is 16 x 1,000 tablets
= 2 2/3 containers
6
Average monthly consumption of container to the nearest container = 3
Example 3: Monthly consumption
A third method of calculating average monthly consumption is to obtain data on actual consumption
from the daily use record or daily use/cash record.
Data of monthly consumption of paracetamol 500-mg tablets over a six-month period.
April 2000 2,000 tablets
May 2000 3,100 tablets
June 2000 2,300 tablets
July 2000 2,100 tablets
August 2000 3,100 tablets
September 2000
3,200 tablets
Total six months 15,800 tablets
Average monthly consumption of tablet is 15,800
= 2633.3 tablets
6
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
11
Each container has 1,000 tablets. Therefore the average monthly consumption of
1,000-tablet tin = 2633.3
= 2.6 tins
1000
Average monthly consumption of paracetamol 500-mg tablets to the nearest container = 3
4.5 Request indicator (re-order)
The request indicator (RI) is the level of drugs in stock; it indicates when fresh orders should be made.
It is the quantity that is calculated to last between the period of placing the order and the delivery of
the new consignment.
The RI is marked with pencil in the space “RI” on the top right-hand corner of the stock card. It
should be updated at least twice a year because consumption may vary due to seasonal changes or
epidemics.
This will ensure that no shortage of stock occurs before the next consignment is expected. The stock
should not be allowed to fall below this level before a new order is placed. Each stock card must have
an RI that is updated from time to time as consumption varies.
The stock should never reach “zero level” before a request is made, as there will be a shortage of stock
for some time. It is easy to calculate the RI once the monthly consumption is obtained.
If the delivery time is three months and the monthly total consumption is 2633.3
RI is: 2633.3 tablets x 3 months = 7,900 tablets
Since the unit of issue is tins of 1,000 tablets, the above figure must be brought to the nearest tin,
which is 7,900
= 7.90 = approximately 8 tins
1000
This means that when the stock of paracetamol is reduced to 8 tins, a new request must be made.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
12
4.6 Quantity to be requested
The type and quantity of drug to be ordered will depend on the disease pattern of the area served by
the health centre, the quantity for each dosage form previously consumed, when drugs were not out
of stock, the period for which the new stock is to serve and the number of patients. In determining
the quantity to be requested:
■
Consider the lead or delivery time.
■
Consider the number of patients to be treated (using national treatment guidelines).
■
Collaborate with the head of the health centre (prescriber) when making a new request. The
prescriber is better placed to know for which item an extra quantity has to be requested
because of epidemics or seasonal changes in disease pattern.
■
Look through all the stock cards in a systematic manner and compare the RI with the
current stock balances.
■
Request only those items where the stock balance approaches the RI, equals the RI or is
below the RI.
Examples:
(a.) RI = 6 tins; Balance: 8 tins (number of patients = 100)
(b.) RI = 6 tins; Balance: 6 tins (number of patients = 100)
(c.) RI = 6 tins; Balance: 0 tins (number of patients = 100)
In the above three situations, consider the existing lead time of three months and add one month as
RESERVE for unforeseen circumstances such as delay in delivery, breakdown of delivery vehicle, stock
rupture at the central store, bad roads, unforeseen epidemic and so on.
Examples:
(a.) RI = -6 tins; current stock balance = 8 tins
In this case the RI is above by 2 tins.
Therefore, make the normal request less by 2 tins
Request quantity = 2 tins x 3 months + 1 month consumption (2 tins)
= (2 x 3) + 2 – 2
= 6 tins
(b.) RI = 6 tins; current stock balance = 6 tins
Average monthly consumption is 6 tins/3 = 2 tins
The quantity to be ordered is:
Average monthly consumption x Lead time + 1 month consumption for unforeseen
events
= (2 tins x 3 months) + 2 tins
= 8 tins
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
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(c.) RI = 6 tins; current stock balance = 0 tins
In this case an extra quantity must be requested to cover the RI.
Request quantity = 2 tins x 3 months + 1 month consumption (2 tins) +
RI (6 tins) quantity
= (2 x 3) + 2 + 6
= 14 tins
In each case above, if previous data show that the number of patients would increase (e.g. malaria cases
due to seasonal variations), then the quantities should be increased proportionally.
If the number of patients is expected to double, then the quantity should be multiplied by 2.
If the number of patients is expected to drop by half, then the quantity should be multiplied by
1
/
2
.
4.7 Price of drugs
The prices of drugs are also determined at the national level. The factors to consider in determining
price include:
■
Purchase price,
■
Shipping cost,
■
Clearing and custom charges,
■
Transportation charges,
■
Markup to cover administrative and other costs.
In determining the price, a factor is also included to take care of inflation so that the revenue
generated will not be eroded with time. This is important for the sustainability of the drug fund.
It is also important not to price drugs at the health centre below the national determined price. At the
local level, the health committee may add another markup to cover local expenses.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
14
4.8 Requisition, supply and receipt of drugs
4.8.1 Drug request
Drugs that are ordered for use in the health centre must be approved for use in the centre. Drugs
in the health centre should be relevant to the pattern of endemic diseases as well as the type of
services being provided in the health centre.
It is advisable to request drugs on a regular basis to prevent shortages. If drugs are not always available,
patients may lose confidence in the health centre and will be discouraged from visiting it. It is impor-
tant to make requests on a regular basis, as drugs will only be delivered when requested. The delivery
time should be taken into consideration in ensuring that drugs are not in short supply.
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Importance of Requesting Regularly
Why does stock control work in some situations but not in others?
Diagram 2
4.8.2 Completing stores requisition/delivery (issue) form
It is advisable to make a request on a standard stores requisition/delivery (issue) form (see Diagram
3). The stores requisition/delivery (issue) form should be produced in four copies. The original and
two other copies of the form will be sent to the central store when completed. The fourth copy is kept
in the dispensary to remind the health worker in charge of drugs or items requested.
Ensure that the following items are filled in correctly:
■
Name of drug and dosage form;
■
Unit of issue and quantity requested;
■
The requisition number (it is preferable to begin with a new number each year, e.g. 1/00);
■
The name of the dispensary and the date the requisition was made;
■
The name and signature of the health worker making the requisition;
■
Where the stores requisition/delivery (issue) form is designed to contain all the items listed,
fill in only the quantities of those items needed;
■
Write down the approximate unit price of each requested item and the approximate total
cost of each item;
■
Name and signature of the health worker making the requisition;
■
The head of the health centre and a representative of the health committee should endorse
the stores requisition/delivery (issue) form.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
16
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
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Model Drug Stores Requisition/Delivery (Issue) Form
Request no. ______________________________________________________________________ I n s titution: ____________________________________________________
Name of health worker: ______________________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________________________
Delivery note: __________________________________________________________________ T otal number of packages: __________________________________
Packed by (name): ____________________________________________________________ Date ____________________________________________________________
Checked by (name): __________________________________________________________ Date ____________________________________________________________
Handed over by (name): ______________________________________________________ Date ____________________________________________________________
Received by (name): __________________________________________________________ Date ____________________________________________________________
For official use only
Item Unit of Unit Quantity Total Quantity Total Signature Remarks
description issue price required price delivered price
1. Acetylsalicylic acid 1,000 tab
500 mg tab
2. Magnesium trisilicate 100 tab
3. Chloroquine 100 mg b 1,000 tab
4. ORS sachets 50 sachets
5. Procaine penicillin vial 1 vial
To be completed in four copies.
■
Period for which supply is required, from _______________ _______________ t o _______________ _______________
■
The dispenser should comment on excess or short supply in the remarks column.
Name and signature of dispenser at health centre: __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Name and signature of member of health committee: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Name and signature of head of heath centre: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Diagram 3
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
18
4.9 Supply of drugs from medical stores
4.9.1 Stores requisition/delivery (issue) form
A stores requisition/delivery (issue) form should accompany any supply made from the medical stores.
Health centres normally receive their drug supplies from central, regional or health services area med-
ical stores. In very rare cases they may obtain drugs from other sources.
■
Supplies are issued on the basis of request made to the medical store by the health centre
on an approved stores requisition/delivery (issue) form.
■
The request should not be excessive and should preferably ask for quantities that can be
used in between delivery times.
■
The quantity of drugs requested is made in the appropriate column of the form and is sent
to the medical store from which drugs are supplied.
■
The request is made on the basis of approved delivery time, time frame or in emergency.
■
The quantities of drugs delivered or issued from the medical stores should be entered in the
appropriate column of the form.
The records of requisition and receipt of drugs from the medical store are kept in the health centre in
an approved manner.
The delivery note from the central medical store should indicate what has been supplied as indicated
in the stores requisition/delivery (issue) form.
4.9.2 Receipt of drugs at dispensary
■
The consignment must come with two copies of the stores requisition/delivery (issue) form.
■
Check that the quantity issued actually corresponds to the quantity indicated on the stores
requisition/delivery (issue) form.
■
Check off each drug after checking.
■
Take note of the unit price of each drug and compare it to the previous unit price.
■
Check that all original boxes, tins or bottles are unopened and are in good condition.
■
Check the labels and ensure that there are no expired drugs being received.
■
Any drugs already expired or soon to expire that cannot be consumed before expiration or
drugs not in good condition should be returned for destruction or redistribution to other
centres.
■
Sign two copies of the stores requisition/delivery (issue) forms if the above procedure have
been completed.
■
Return one copy of the signed stores requisition/delivery (issue) form to the medical stores,
and place another copy in the “drug order” file.
■
Place drugs with shorter expiration dates in front of the shelf so that they can be reached
and used first.
■
Remember to record the new stock on the respective stock (bin) cards and appropriate
forms.
4.9.3 Discrepancies when receiving drugs
Where there is a difference in the quantities of drugs issued and the quantities actually received,
request the delivery team to give an immediate explanation and make the necessary correction on the
stores requisition/delivery (issue) form. If there are broken bottles or leaking packages, hand these over
to the delivery team along with an internal drug return (IDR) for m.
Discrepancies should always be recorded in the Remarks column on the stores requisition/delivery
(issue) form (Diagram 3).
4.9.4 Transfer voucher or internal drug return (IDR) form
The transfer voucher effects the movement of the following items to the medical store:
■
Expiring drugs,
■
Damaged or spoiled drugs,
■
Drugs soon to expire,
■
Excess stock resulting from wrong RI or low consumption.
The following rules should be kept in mind:
■
It is important that drugs are not allowed to expire in the health centre because of changes
in disease pattern or for any other reasons.
■
Items that can be used elsewhere should be transferred immediately using an IDR form to
the medical stores for subsequent redistribution (Diagram 4).
■
Expired or spoiled items should be transferred immediately using the IDR form to the
medical stores for destruction.
■
Excess stock should normally be transferred at least 3 months before expiration to the med-
ical store using the IDR form.
■
An internal transfer directly from one dispensary to another without involving the central
store is not permitted for accounting purposes.
■
The IDR form should be filled in triplicate. The triplicate copy is retained in the health
centre while the original and duplicate copies accompany the returned drugs.
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This is the procedure for the transfer to the medical store of any of the following:
■
Expired items,
■
Damaged or spoiled items,
■
Drugs soon to expire,
■
Surplus quantities resulting from the wrong RI.
An internal transfer directly from one dispensary to another without including the central store should
not be effected because this will create confusion in accounting. Diagram 5 illustrates an IDR flow.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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Example of Transfer Voucher or Internal Drug Return Form
Item description Unit of Expiry Quantity Unit Amount Remarks
issue issue date price
Normal saline 500 ml 500 ml 9/04 10 800 8,000 Leaking
Aspirin 500 mg 1,000 tab 7/04 2,000 10 20,000 Soon to expire
Bipenicillin 1 MU 1 vial 4/04 2 180 360 Broken
Mebendazole 100 mg 1,000 tab 6/04 610 30 18,300 Expired
Chloroquine 100 mg 1,000 tab 1/04 3,000 10 30,000 Over quanity
ANC card Piece — 5 150 750 Misprint
Povidone iodine 100 ml 12/04 2 1,000 2,000 Not supplied
TOTAL 79,410
Delivered by: ______________________________________________________ Re c eived by: ______________________________________________________
For medical stores use only
Voucher no. ________________________________________________________ 2 copies retur ned to central store __________________________________
Diagram 4
4.9.5 Procedure for supplying drugs to health centre store
Some health centres have lying in-wards and outpatient clinics to which drugs are supplied. The health
centre store will supply the drugs in accordance with the following:
■
A request is made from the ward/clinic in an approved manner.
■
Supplies are made on the basis of the request, and quantities of drugs supplied are recorded
in an approved manner.
■
Entries of quantities of drugs supplied are made on bin cards as well as the drug register
maintained (in the store) for drugs received and supplied.
Normally, drugs are supplied from the health centre (dispensary) store to the dispensing area. Entries
of such entries are also made on bin cards or the drug register maintained in the store bin an approved
manner.
4.9.6 Drug donations
Donated drugs should be screened and separated into expired or poor-quality drugs, those approved
for use at the health centre and those not approved. Those approved for use at the health centre should
be retained and entered into the stock. The rest must be sent to the central store with an IDR form.
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Return of Excess Stock
Store 1
Central Medical Store
Store 2
Expected IDR
quantity
Drug can be used here
before expiration
Diagram 5
4.10 Drug storage
4.10.1 Proper drug storage
Drugs are stored in a specially designed secure area or space of a building in order to:
■
Avoid contamination or deterioration,
■
Avoid disfiguration of labels,
■
Maintain integrity of packaging and so guarantee quality and potency of drugs during shelf
life,
■
Prevent or reduce pilferage, theft or losses,
■
Prevent infestation of pests and vermin.
4.10.2 Storage Environment
The storage environment should possess the following:
■
Adequate temperature,
■
Sufficient lighting,
■
Clean conditions,
■
Humidity control,
■
Cold storage facilities,
■
Adequate shelving to ensure integrity of the stored drugs.
4.10.3 Arrangement of drugs on shelves
The following guidelines are for arranging drugs.
■
Shelves should be made of steel or treated wood.
■
Shelves should be strong and robust.
■
Drugs are arranged in alphabetical order of generic names.
■
Each dosage form of drug is arranged in separate and distinct areas.
■
Sufficient empty space should demarcate one drug or dosage form from another.
Most recently received drugs are placed behind old stock on the shelf except where new drugs have
shorter expiration dates.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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It is important to ensure the following rules in the dispensary and the store attached to the
dispensary:
■
Keep the environment clean.
■
Always put lids properly on tins always and at the close of the day.
■
Put drugs in a dry place protected from light and heat.
■
Store liquids on a pallet on the floor or on the lowest shelf.
The store must be cleaned daily and mopped at least once a week.
4.10.4 The storeroom
A well-arranged store enables easy identification of drugs and saves time when picking a drug from the
shelves. The following procedure will facilitate managing the drugs in the store. Put drugs on the
shelves in alphabetical order corresponding to the essential drug list. This helps remove drugs quick-
ly and makes for easy inventory control. The rule of FIRST IN FIRST OUT (FIFO) should be applied
always. So, drugs that were received first should be used first, except where the new stock has short-
er expiration dates than the old stock. In this regard, the principle of FIRST TO EXPIRE FIRST OUT
(FEFO) should apply.
To have access to dr ugs with shorter expiration dates first, put these in front of the shelves. Those with
longer expiration dates should be placed behind those with shorter dates.
4.10.5 The dispensary
Good arrangement facilitates dispensing work. Practise the following:
■
Retain a daily drug use record in the dispensary.
■
Provide a table for dispensing drugs.
■
To facilitate work, do not overcrowd the dispensing table.
■
Arrange documents in an orderly manner on the table, away from the dispensing area.
■
Clean after each use tablet counters and place within easy reach on the table.
■
Avoid dispensing wrong drugs by arranging drugs on the table in alphabetical order so that
the drug being dispensed is not confused with another.
■
Always close drug containers from which drugs are not being dispensed to prevent spillage
or dispensing the wrong drug.
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At the health centre level, dr ug distribution concerns mainly dispensing drugs to patients. This
requires an understanding of the patients (who may not speak or understand the language of the dis-
penser) and practical skills in dispensing and record-keeping. The other aspect of distribution of
drugs at the health centre is the return of overstocked and nearly expired drugs to the medical store
as discussed in Section 4.3.4.
5.1 Rational prescribing
Prescriptions should be written after a diagnosis or a health problem has been identified. The
prescription will present the necessary drugs and measures sufficient to heal or improve the state
of the patient. The prescription must then contain all the necessary information clearly written.
Known roman numerals usually written in prescriptions to represent dosage are:
i, ii, iii, representing one, two and three.
It is better to state dosage in terms of strength (e.g. 500 mg) than number of tablets. This is because
some drug products are available in different strengths (e.g. diazepam 5 mg and 10 mg).
Avoid the use of decimal points when stating the strength of a drug—500 mg is preferred to .5 gm
and 250 micrograms is preferred to .25 mg. This is because if the decimal point does not appear
clearly, a wrong strength of drug may be dispensed as 25 mg instead of .25 mg. If a decimal point
is not avoidable, then precede it with a 0 such as 0.25.
Too many abbreviations, illegible writing or ambiguous instructions can lead to errors in dispensing. It
is therefore recommended that prescriptions should be unambiguous and written legibly.
Example: Rx
Paracetamol 500 mg tabs ii tds x 3 days
The prescription is clear as it states:
■
The dosage form of the paracetamol—tablets,
■
The strength of the paracetamol tablets—500 mg per tablet,
■
The number of days for which the paracetamol tablets have been prescribed,
■
The number of times the tablets should be taken each day,
■
The number of paracetamol tablets to be taken each time.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
24
Drug distribution
5.2 Content of a prescription
A prescription is a set of instructions written by a qualified prescriber to a dispenser for supply of
drugs after counselling the patient on how to use the drug. It is ver y important that prescriptions
are clearly written.
A prescription should have the following:
■
Name of the patient and age (especially if a child),
■
Date,
■
Instructions about the prescribed drugs, including:
■
Generic name and dosage form,
■
Dose,
■
Frequency of administration,
■
Duration of treatment,
■
Prescriber’s signature and name.
5.3 Abbreviations commonly used in prescriptions
The following abbreviations are commonly used in prescriptions:
Duration of treatment is usually indicated by denominators: 7 = days, 12 = months and 52 = weeks.
For example, 1/7 = one day, 2/12 = two months and 1/52 = one week.
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amp = ampoule
bid = twice daily
cap = capsule
g = gram
im = intramuscular
iv - intravenous
kg = kilogram
mg = milligram
mg/kg = milligram per kilogram
body weight (a way of calculating
a dose to be prescribed)
ml = millilitre
mu = million (mega) unit
nocte = at bed time
od = once a day
prn = when necessary
qid (qds) = four times daily
Rx = treatment
sc = subcutaneous
stat = at once
supp = suppository
tab = tablet
tbsp = tablespoonful (=10 ml)
tid/tds = thrice daily
tsp = teaspoonful (= 5 ml)
wt = weight
5.4 Dispensing drugs to patients
5.4.1 Correct drug dispensing
Dispensed drugs should be appropriately labelled so that the patient can benefit optimally from the
use of the drug. Expired drugs should not be dispensed. Correct dispensing ensures that:
■
The right patient is served,
■
A desired dosage form of the correct drug is given,
■
The prescribed dosage and quantity are given,
■
The right container that maintains the potency of the drugs is used,
■
The container is appropriately labelled,
■
Clear instructions are delivered verbally to the patient.
5.4.2 Dispensing procedure
■
Ensure that the prescription has the name and signature of the prescriber and the stamp of
the health centre.
■
Ensure that the prescription is dated and has the name of the patient.
■
If the prescription has not been written in a known (local) health centre, the prescriber of
the centre should endorse it.
■
Avoid dispensing without a prescription or from an unauthorized prescriber.
■
Check the name of the prescribed drug against that of the container.
■
Check the expiration date on the container.
■
Calculate the total cost of the drug to be dispensed on the basis of the prescription where
applicable.
■
Inform the patient about the cost of the drug.
■
Issue a receipt for all payments.
■
Hand over the dispensed drug as in 5.4.1.
5.4.3 Dispensing prescriptions on part-payment
Where a patient does not have enough money to pay for all the drugs as prescribed, the dispenser is
faced with a difficult situation. Consider the following scenario to resolve this situation:
(a.) Cotrimoxazole 400/80 mg tab 2 bd x 5 days
(b.) Chloroquine 150 mg tab 4 stat, then 2 tab bd x 2/7
■
Either dispense all the 20 tablets of cotrimoxazole or the 10 tablets of chloroquine as
prescribed and insist that the patient completes the dose dispensed.
■
In case a patient is unable to pay for all the prescribed drugs, go to the prescriber and ask
which of the two drugs should be dispensed first.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
26
■
Do not dispense a few tablets of cotrimoxazole and a few tablets of chloroquine as the
patient will not come back to complete the prescription if he feels better.
■
When the temporary relief passes, the cotrimoxazole or chloroquine may not be effective
again in that particular condition.
5.4.4 Guiding principles in dispensing on cash basis
■
Dispense drugs only on payment.
■
Do not give free drugs to any person in the community, no matter what the person’s social
standing.
■
Issue receipts for drugs sold.
■
Display a price list of drugs for transparency and accountability, and to help patients cross-
check.
5.5 Packaging of drugs for patients
All drugs should be put in suitable and appropriately labelled containers to ensure correct use and
maintain potency and quality during the period of use.
5.5.1 Tablets and capsules
■
Do not use fingers to count tablets as this can lead to contamination of drugs.
■
Use a spoon to put tablets and capsules onto a counting tray.
■
Count and put them in a labelled drug container or pack.
■
Use a different labelled drug container or pack for each drug.
■
Do not mix different drug items in one container.
■
Close stock containers (e.g. tins, bottles) tightly after dispensing.
■
Keep the spoon clean at all times.
5.5.2 Liquid preparations
■
Provide appropriate bottles with caps for repackaging liquid preparations.
■
Dispense liquid preparations in suitable containers.
■
Do not use patients’ own bottles.
■
Dispense each drug in a different bottle.
5.5.3 Labeling
■
Label all containers in which drugs are dispensed.
■
Use pictorial labels when a patient is not literate.
■
Where envelopes are used, label them before drugs are packed.
■
For liquid preparations, label the container(s) after putting in the liquid preparation.
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The label on the container of dispensed drugs should contain the following in order to promote patient
compliance:
■
Drug name (use generic name),
■
Strength (usually in mg),
■
Quantity dispensed,
■
Clear instructions for use in a familiar language,
■
Cautionary label (e.g. “Keep out of reach of children”),
■
Name of the patient,
■
Name of the health facility,
■
Date of dispensing.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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Example of Labels
Label for tablets
or capsules
LABEL A LABEL B
Label for liquid preparations
Pictorial label
THE MIXTURE
Drug name: ____________________________________________________________
________________One ______________ tbs /ts p
____________________
THREE
____________TI MES DAILY BEFORE /AFTER
MEALS
Name:
ROSEMARY
Date:18/07/97
Shake the bottle before use
KEEP ALL MEDICINES AWAY FROM CHILDREN’S REACH
Name of Health Centre
Diagram 6
6.1 Rational drug use
The rational use of drugs requires that the drug is prescribed for a particular patient after proper diag-
nosis of a health problem. Prescriptions should promote the rational use of drugs. Rational use of
drugs requires that a particular patient with a specific health problem receives drugs according to the
following:
■
Appropriate dose,
■
Appropriate dosage form,
■
Appropriate route of administration,
■
Appropriate frequency of administration,
■
Appropriate duration of treatment,
■
Appropriate information to the patient,
■
Adequate follow up
6.2 Information to the patient
The health worker should be able to give the patient additional information to re-enforce the right
instructions on the label. This should be in a language that is familiar to the patient. The information
in the form of verbal instructions should including the following:
■
How often to take the drug,
■
When to take the drug (e.g. before or after the meals),
■
How long the treatment is to last (e.g. why the entire course of an antibiotic treatment must
be taken),
■
How to take the drug (e.g. with water, chewing or swallowing),
■
How to store the drug (e.g. avoid heat, light and dampness),
■
Do not share drugs with other persons,
■
Keep drugs out of the reach of children.
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Use of drugs
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
30
Communicating with a Patient at the Dispensary
Diagram 7
Source: Managing Drug Supply. MSH/WHO, Kumanian 1997.
Record-keeping is an important part of drug management. Records are subject to auditing from time
to time or when there is information of improper record-keeping or there has been a burglary, fire or
flood. Mistakes on records should be neatly crossed out and signed for but not obliterated. Records
should be completed in the dispensary on a daily basis, and not later than a week after the event. This
will enable easier compilation of drug consumption and cash receipts. The following stock manage-
ment records should be completed in the order described in the following sections.
7.1 Consumption records to be kept at the store
Maintain a stock (bin) card for each dosage form of drug in the store where drugs are kept. Stock (bin)
cards are important for good accountability of stock movements. The cards should be made of stiff
cardboard and be placed near the drug products that they refer to on the shelves. If one dosage form
is available in two different strengths, open separate stock cards for each strength. Stock, bin or tally
cards are very useful tools in the management of stores. Follow these procedures:
■
Maintain a stock (bin) card for each drug or dosage form of a drug in the store where drugs
are kept.
■
Enter quantity of seed stock in the “in” and “balance” columns with date, price and
supplier.
■
Enter quantity of any new stock in the “in” column with date, price, supplier and delivery
number.
■
Enter balance of stock brought forward in “balance” column with date.
■
Entries of receipt and issue of drugs are made after the event.
■
Always have a balance of stock entered in the “balance” column with date.
■
Always issue out full containers of drugs from the store and enter the quantity of drug
issued in the “out” column.
■
Physically check the actual balance of stock against current balance in stock card from time
to time to detect any discrepancy.
■
Keep spoons and measuring cups within reach for dispensing.
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Drug stock management support tools
Example:
Keep separate stock (bin) cards for:
■
Acetylsalicylic acid 300-mg tablets
■
Acetylsalicylic acid 500-mg tablets.
7.2 Entries to be made in stock (bin) card
■
When an item is received from the central store, enter the quantity received in the “IN”
column on the stock card using a red pen.
■
Add the number to the previous balance on the stock card to obtain the current balance.
■
Enter the unit price.
■
Enter the date and number of the delivery note of the central store in the column “Ref.
No.”
■
It is preferable to take a full container of a drug from the shelf in the store to the dispensing
area when the stock in the dispensing area is finished or almost finished.
■
Each time a full container of a drug is taken from the shelf to the dispensing area, an entry
of the number of containers taken out is made in the stock (bin) card using a blue or black
pen in the “OUT” column.
■
Subtract the number of containers taken out from the previous balance in the stock card to
obtain the current balance.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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Ako Dispensary Stock Card No. 1
ITEM: Paracetamol Dosage 500 mg. Unit of Issue 1,000 Tablets RI89 x 1,000
Date Ref. From/To Quantity Balance Cost Remarks Signature
(1997) No. In Out Price
30/5 B/F 3
5/6 51/97 From central store 7 10
5/6 To central store 1 9 2,000 IDR
Exp 8/97
6/6 To dispensary store 1 8 2,000
20/6 To dispensary store 1 7 2,000
4/7 To dispensary store 1 6 2,000
18/7 To dispensary store 1 5 2,000
4/8 To dispensary store 1 4 2,000
25/8 To dispensary store 1 3 2,000
1/9 Stock taking 3 Annual
Where RI represents the re-order level, the lowest stock level before an order is placed for the next
stock.
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
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Example of Stock (bin) Card
Diagram 8
7.3 Consumption records at the dispensary level
There is a need to maintain a record on consumption of drugs at the dispensary through the use of a
daily use record book.
■
The daily use record book is used to make entries of all drugs dispensed on a daily basis.
■
Maintain a daily use record in the daily use record book in the format shown in Diagram 9.
■
Use a fresh page for making entries for each drug dosage form.
■
Reserve a page or two for every month’s consumption of drugs.
■
Make entries from actual receipts issued.
■
When a drug item is taken out of the dispensary store, an entry is made in the “OUT”
column in the stock (bin) card in the store. An entry is also made in the “IN” column,
with red pen, in the daily use record in the dispensing area as well as the date the entry
was made.
■
Add the quantity of drugs taken from the store to the dispensary to the previous balance in
the daily use record to obtain current balance.
■
Enter the dispensing date and the total quantity of dosage form dispensed daily in the
“OUT” column.
■
Subtract the quantity dispensed or used daily from the balance to obtain current balance.
■
Enter any shortage in the “OUT” column and necessary remarks in the “REMARKS”
column.
7.4 Discrepancies
Discrepancies should always be recorded in the “REMARKS” column (as in Diagram 9). Discrepancies
may arise for one of the following reasons:
■
Some of the tablets may have been crushed into powder or broken,
■
A shortage may result from a mistake by the manufacturer,
■
A shortage may occur in the containers when tablets issued are not recorded in the daily use
record sheet,
■
Arithmetic errors may result in shortages or excess stock.
Considering the case of acetylsalicylic acid tablets in Diagram 9, only proper record-keeping on a daily
basis can give early warning of a possible shortage.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
34
Example: The daily use record on 19/6 indicates that there is a balance of 42 tablets of
acetylsalicylic acid.
Actual balance is only 22 tablets.
There is therefore a shortage of 20 tablets.
If some powder or broken tablets are found in the container from which drugs were dispensed, the
powder or broken tablets may account for the 20 tablets shortage in the daily use record book.
If there is nothing remaining in the container and entries were made of all drugs dispensed in the
daily use record book, then it could be concluded that the shortage came from the manufacturer
during packaging. Keep all available evidence and report to the medical store as soon as possible.
The medical store may receive similar reports from other health centres and can then estimate the
average shortage per container for that particular drug item and credit your account.
This irregularity may also be reported by the medical store to the suppliers for compensation, where
possible. This exercise can only be accurately done with proper documentation in the daily use record
book.
This exercise will explain shortages declared at the end of the financial year when an audit is carried
out.
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Acetylsalicylic acid tablets 3,000 mg
Date From/To Quantity Remarks
(1997) In Out Balance
(Tabs)
2/6 B/F 20
3/6 From dispensary store 1,000 1,020
4/6 To patients 60 960
5/6 To patients 48 912
6/6 To patients 84 828
9/6 To patients 60 768
10/6 To patients 84 684
11/6 To patients 84 600
12/6 To patients 120 480
13/6 To patients 48 432
16/6 To patients 150 282
17/6 To patients 84 198
18/6 To patients 60 138
19/6 To patients 96 42
20/6 Shortage 20 22 20 Crumbled
tablets
23/6 From store 1,000 1,022
23/6 To patients 120 902
24/6 “ 150 752
25/6 “ 180 572
26/6 “ 160 412
27/6 “ 180 232
30/6 From store 1,000 1,232
30/6 To patients 240 992
Monthly consumption 2008 Two tins used
for June 1997 for the month
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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Example of Daily Use Record
Diagram 9
7.5 Receipts for drugs dispensed
■
When payments are made for the drugs dispensed, it is advisable that the fees for the dis-
pensed drugs are collected and receipts issued before the drug is given to the patient.
■
Every dispensary should have a receipt book in duplicate form.
■
Every patient should be issued a receipt for drugs purchased (see Diagram 10 for example).
■
Use carbon paper to produce a duplicate copy.
■
Stamp the original receipt with “PAID” on receipt of cash payment for the dispensed drugs.
■
Give the original receipt to the patient and retain the duplicate in the receipt booklet.
Receipt for drugs
No. 00012
Dispensary ____________________________________________________________________________________
Name ________________________________________________________________________________________
Date __________________________________________________________________________________________
Name of drug Qty sold Unit Price Amount
Chloroquine 10 3,000 30,000
Aspirin 10 2,000 20,000
Seller Total 50,000
7.6 Daily use/cash record
The daily use/cash record has to be filled on a daily basis and in particular when payments are made
for dispensed drugs. The following data could be transferred from the duplicate copies of the
receipt book to the daily use/cash record sheet (Diagram 11) when the last patient (client) for the
day has been served:
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Example of Receipt
Diagram 10
■
Date,
■
Name of patient,
■
Receipt number,
■
Quantity of each drug dispensed,
■
Money collected from the patient.
Draw a line under the last entry for the day in your daily use/cash record sheet using a red pen. The
quantity of drugs is expressed as number of tablets (for tablets) or volume in ml. (for liquids)
dispensed. Add up the quantities of each drug dispensed and cash collected to give the details of
daily transactions.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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Daily Use/Cash Record Book
Diagram 11
Daily Use Cash
Pharmacy ____________
CHW ________________
Date Patient’s Rec.
name No.
Item
Signature
Daily cash
received
7.7 Financial record book
The total daily cash from the column “CASH RECEIVED” of a daily use/cash record should be
transferred to the financial record book (FRB) and the new balance calculated in the FRB as shown
in Diagram 12.
Date Cash Cash paid out Balance Remarks
collected
8/7/00 B/F 210,000
9/7/00 15,100 225,000
10/7/00 5,060 230,160
11/7/00 6,960 237,120
12/7/00 9,860 20,000* 46,980 *Paid to CMS
15/7/00 11,340 58,320
16/7/00 17,100 75,420
17/7/00 6,705 82,125
18/7/00 980 83,106
19/7/00 7,565 90,670
22/7/00 12,420 103,090
Cash in hand = 103,090
Audited on 23/7/00 by ____________________________________________
Chairman of ______________________________________________________ health committee.
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Example of Financial Record Book
Diagram 12
7.8 Summary of daily data flow
A summary of daily data is given in Diagram 13.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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Dispensary Data Flow
Diagram 13
7.9 Custody of cash
Commercial banks usually do not have branches in most villages where health centres are located. It
is, therefore, important to adopt convenient methods for securing all cash and always having money
available for the replenishment of drugs.
The following procedures can be helpful in the handling of cash:
■
A locally-made durable safe cash should be provided and buried in the floor in such a way
that it cannot easily be located by other people. This safe should be used in such a way that
once money has been deposited, it can only be taken out in the presence of a member of
the health committee or supervisory team who has one of the keys.
■
Purchase money orders with cash collected. Address such money orders to the medical
store, if possible, and keep in the safe for making payment to the medical store during the
next supply.
■
Take money along for making payments for supplies whenever a trip is made to the medical
store.
■
The delivery team could collect cash for supplies made to the health centre when delivering
supplies.
■
Only person from the central store team should collect money from the health centre!
■
Any amount that is not paid out (balance) is carried forward and used to pay during the
next visit to the medical store.
■
A receipt, such as that in Diagram 14, could be used to document the collection and
payment of cash in the FRB.
Tur nover (From ________ t o ______ ) __________
Paid to central store __________________________________________________________________________
Balance ______________________________________________________________________________________
Name/Signature of payer ______________________________________________________________________
Name/Signature of receiver ____________________________________________________________________
Date __________________________________________________________________________________________
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Model Receipt for Payments to Medical Store
Diagram 14
7.10 Current capital situation card (CCSC)
The current capital situation card (CCSC) is an important source of financial information for the
dispensary, supervisory team and members of the health committee. It should be possible to give,
at any time, a report on the finances of the dispensary using the CCS card. This means that all
financial transactions in the health centre dispensary are documented.
This document is used to follow up the value of stock and cash in the dispensary at any time. When a
drug consignment is received, the cash value of stock at the dispensary increases. When an internal
drug return is made, it reduces the dispensary’s value of stock. At any time, the value of stock/cash
should be equivalent to the figure on the CCSC.
The following transactions are recorded on the CCSC as shown in Diagram 15:
■
When drugs are received, their total value is entered in the column “SUPPLY” and this is
added to the previous balance.
■
Cash paid to the medical store should be entered in the column “CASH PAID” and
subtracted from the previous balance.
■
All internal drug returns should also be expressed in cash and entered in the column “IDR”
wit a red pen and subtracted from the previous balance. Note “IDR” under “REMARKS”
(Diagram 15).
■
Any price revision is entered in the column “SUPPLY” and added to or subtracted from the
previous balance depending on whether the revision has resulted in an increase or decrease
in the value of stock. Note “Price Revision” under “REMARKS” (Diagram 15).
■
Whenever there is an inventory-taking exercise, enter the value of stock taking in the
column “BALANCE”. The balance represents the amount of cash in hand and the drugs
not dispensed (in stock) reflected as cash.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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Card No. 1
Name of Dispensary: Gazawa
Date Supply IDR Cash Balance Remarks
Paid
8/1/97 2,000,000 2,000,000 1st supply
8/97
2/4/97 520,000 1,480,000
2/4/97 604,000 2,084,00 Supply
2/4/97 186,045 1,897,955 IDR (00142)
2/4/97 89,250 1,987,205 Price revision
1/96
28/6/97 60,000 1,387,205
28/6/97 721,100 2,108,305 Supply
28/6/97 2,108,305 Stock Taking
26/9/97 820,045 2,928,250 Supply
26/9/97 705,835 2,222,515
7.11 Monthly return form
The monthly return form is used at the end of each month to collect data for the medical store. This
data will help the medical store to assess monthly consumption in the health centre and determine
the future purchases at the health centre. This financial progress of the dispensary in relation to
attendance at the health centre can also be assessed with the data. The information on the monthly
return form (Diagram 16) is:
■
Cash collected for the month (as in the FRB),
■
Total number of patients that attended the health centre. Information provided by the head
of the health centre,
■
Quantities of each drug dispensed for the month (refer to daily use record or the daily
use/cash record sheet.
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Current Capital Situation Card
Diagram 15
Dispensary: __________________________________ Month and Year: ______________
Monthly turnover (in local currency): ________________________________________ (Refer to FRB)
Health centre attendance for month: ______________________________________________
Items sold during the month Quantity
Acetylsalicylic acid 500 mg tab __________________
Acetyl salicylic acid 250 mg tab __________________
Benzyl benzoate 25% lotion __________________
Chloroquine 100 mg tablet __________________
Diethyl carbamazine 100 mg tablet __________________
Folic acid 5 mg tablet __________________
Name of health worker:________________________________________________________________________
Signature of health worker: ____________________________________________________________________
Date:__________________________________________________________________________________________
7.12 Inventory form
The inventory form (Diagram 17) is used at the end of each financial year or at any time it becomes
necessary to undertake an inventory exercise in the dispensar y. Both shortages and excesses can be
found in the exercise. In either situation, a thorough investigation needs to be done (e.g. reviewing all
additions and subtractions in the inventory sheets). It is advisable to carry out an inventor y exercise at
six-monthly intervals (or even quarterly) in order to identify any problems early enough rather than
waiting for the end of the year.
A representative of both the medical store and the health committee should participate in the inven-
tory exercise. The following activities should be carried out during the inventory:
■
Any cash in hand should be counted first and included in the inventory figures.
■
Any supply made before the inventory must be counted with the other items.
■
Count all drugs in the store and dispensing area and record the numbers. Use a tablet
counter to prevent contamination.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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Example of Dispensary Monthly Return Form
Diagram 16
■
Do not open full tins and packages to count the contents.
■
Verify all full tins and packages to make sure that their contents are intact.
■
Calculate the total value of stock by adding the values of all items.
■
Compare this number with the current balance in the CCSC. The two should correspond if
there has been efficient management of stock and cash during the period being audited.
■
These figures will be used by an external auditor to prepare a balance sheet for the
dispensary.
■
The health worker should pay for any deficits established at the end of the audit.
■
Profits declared in the audit report should be put back into the health system.
Place: ________________________________________ Date: ________________________________________
Item Quantity Unit Price Total Cost
Acetylsalicylic acid 500 mg tablet ____________ 30 ______________________
Cotrimoxazole 400/800 mg tablet ____________ 80 0 ______________________
Benzyl benzoate 25% lotion B/100 ml ____________ 50 0 ______________________
Chloroquine 150 mg tablet ____________ 10 ______________________
Mebendazole 100 mg tablet ____________ 1 0 ______________________
Folic acid 5 mg tablet ____________ 5 ______________________
Total: ____________ ______________________
Cash in hand: ________________________________________________________________________________
Total capital:__________________________________________________________________________________
Amount on CCSC: __________________________________________________________________________
Deficit/Surplus amount: ______________________________________________________________________
Name/Signature of health worker: ____________________________________________________________
Name/Signature of head of centre: ____________________________________________________________
Name/Signature of health committee representative: __________________________________________
Name/Signature of person taking over Dispensary, where applicable): __________________________
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Example of Inventory Form
Diagram 17
7.13 Storage of documents
For easy reference, documents should be numbered and put into different files. Various colours of files
may be used for easy reference. The following documents should be put into different files:
■
Daily use/cash record,
■
Financial documents (e.g. IDR),
■
Requisition/delivery form,
■
General correspondence,
■
Miscellaneous.
Keep all used documents (e.g. receipt booklets, FRB, stock cards, CCSC) in safe custody for at least
five years before they are thrown away.
7.14 Security measures in the dispensary
Necessary security measures in the dispensary must be implemented in order to avoid theft.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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Security Measures
Diagram 18
7.14.1 Doors, windows, roofs and ceilings
Install an inner wooden door shutter and an outer metallic door shutter as shown in Diagram 18. All
locks on the door should be functioning well. Ensure that all the doors are closed and locked at the
end of each day.
There should be one window in the dispensary to provide light for serving patients. The window
should have strong burglar bars and a metallic shutter.
The roof and ceiling of the building should be made of materials that will prevent any illegal entry into
the dispensary.
7.14.2 Safe and keys
A solid safe locally made to reduce cost should be installed in the dispensary for deposit of cash from
daily sales. The safe should be buried in the floor in the dispensary in an area not accessible to other
people.
Keys should be kept by the individual responsible for the dispensary at all times. In the absence of the
dispenser, the head of the health centre should make alternative arrangements for safe custody of the
keys.
7.14.3 Watchman
An honest watchman should be employed to keep watch over the health centre and dispensary on a
regular basis.
7.15 Handing over the dispensary
The dispenser may have to be away for one of the following reasons:
■
Annual leave,
■
Maternity leave,
■
Sick leave.
The chairman of the health committee and the head of the health centre should make arrange-
ments for temporary staff to serve in the dispensar y during the absence of regular staff. Use the
inventory form (Diagram 17) to establish the current stock with the person taking over. The out-
going and incoming staff should sign the inventory, and the health committee representative and
head of the health centre should endorse it. Cash should be personally handed to the person tak-
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ing over. Do not take any money away. Send a copy of the “handing over” note to the head of the
health centre. Upon return from leave, the regular dispenser should follow the same procedure in
taking over. In an emergency, the head of the health centre should arrange adequate coverage of
the dispensary for the period of the emergency.
7.16 What to do in case of burglary
If there is any burglary in the dispensary, follow this procedure:
■
Do not go into the dispensary, and do not make any sale.
■
Write and inform the head of the health centre and the chairman of the health committee.
■
Follow up so that the head of the health centre reports immediately to the police.
■
An inventory of the dispensary similar to Diagram 17 should be done in the presence of the
police or any other person designated by the head of the health centre.
■
Compare the inventory stock with the stock on the bin (stock) cards or daily use/cash
record so as to assess the quantities of drugs stolen.
■
A copy of the report of inventory should be sent to the head of the health centre and to the
medical store.
■
The health committee should immediately reinstate the necessary security measures to
prevent further burglary.
■
Start sales only after the head of the health centre and the health committee so authorize.
7.17 Supervision/inspection
7.17.1 Role of supervision/inspection
Two teams should be involved in conducting inspection of the dispensary. The first is the team from
the appropriate authority. A pharmacist should be a member of this team. The second team is repre-
sented by some members of the health committee.
Among other duties, the team should do the following:
■
Ensure that drugs are properly arranged on shelves in the dispensary.
■
Check that security measures are in place.
■
Collect a few names with dates at random from receipt books, cross-check with the
health centre consultation register and verify if those patients were actually consulted
before coming to the dispensary.
■
Recalculate at random the figures in the FRB to ensure that they are correct.
■
In consultation with the health committee, make payments following laid down criteria.
■
Decide with the health committee who will be responsible for deficits and surpluses.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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■
Make advance payment of salary to the health committee who will later pay the health
worker on a monthly basis.
■
Pay incentives where approved.
■
Recommend to the health committee further work to be done in the dispensary.
■
Give on-the-job training so that records are always kept up-to-date.
■
Establish a report on-the-spot on observations and leave a copy in the health centre.
■
Confirms the availability of all approved drugs on the list.
7.17.2 Role of health committee
The health committee should be mobilized to realise the following in proper functioning of the
dispensary:
■
Go through previous inspection reports made by the appropriate authority and note any
action to be taken.
■
Check the general cleanliness of the dispensary.
■
Compare monthly turnover at the dispensary in relation to the number of patients that were
seen at the health centre.
■
Confirm the availability of all approved drugs on the list in the dispensary.
The committee has to meet on a regular basis with the head of the health centre to plan activities for
the health centre and dispensary and prepare strategies for the implementation of planned activities.
The health committee should be mobilized to do the following:
■
Oversee necessary security measures in the dispensary as described in Section 7.14.
■
Provide adequate furniture for the centre.
■
Procure shelves for the drugs.
■
Use an appropriate method to select a candidate to work in the dispensary.
■
Follow up training of selected candidates at the medical store.
■
Engage the trained candidate on contract.
■
Inspect financial documents and detect any deficits early enough.
■
Check that all administrative records in the dispensary are up-to-date.
■
Ensure maintenance, cleanliness and proper-set up of the dispensary.
■
Participate in handing over the dispensary in case of any absence.
■
Sensitize the population on the advantages of the use of the dispensary.
■
Assist in receiving drugs for the health centre, when necessary.
■
Assist in all inventory taking.
■
Employ a watchman for the dispensary and health centre.
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Active Ingredient—That portion of a drug dosage form that has therapeutic properties.
Basic Unit—The smallest unit in which a drug can be conveniently dispensed or administered.
Brand or Trade Name—This is a name given to a drug product by its manufacturer. Only the com-
pany that has the trade name for this product manufactures it or has it manufactured under license.
Branded Generic—Generic drug product marketed under brand name.
Central Store—A store within a health care delivery system charged with the storage and distribu-
tion of drugs.
Community Health Worker—A trained health worker designated to work within the community
and offering curative, preventive and promotive health services.
Current Capital Situation Card (CCSC)—A card showing the financial situation of a dispensary
of any given time.
Delivery (Lead) Time—The time between which an order for new stock is placed and the time it
is received.
Dispensary—An area suitably designed for the preparation and distribution of drugs to the patients.
Dispensary Store—A store for keeping stock of drugs within the dispensary area.
Dispense—To prepare and supply to a patient a course of therapy on the basis of a prescription.
Dispenser—A general term for anyone who dispenses drugs. It is specifically used to mean anyone
who is not a graduate pharmacist but is trained to dispense medications, maintain stock records and
assist in procurement activities.
Dispensing—The preparation and distribution of a course of therapy to a patient, with appro-
priate instructions, based on a prescription.
Dosage Form—The form of a finished drug product (e.g. tablets, capsule, elixir, suppository).
Drug Potency—The extent to which a drug product contains the specified amount of active
ingredient.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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Definitions
Drug Product—A unique combination of drug(s), strength and dosage form (e.g., paracetamol
500 mg tab) in which a drug is administered.
Drug Product Strength—This is the quantity of active ingredient(s) of a drug(s) in a dosage
form.
Drug Use—The process of diagnosing, prescribing, labeling, packaging and dispensing to ensure
adherence of the patient to the given drug treatment.
Expiration Date—The expiration date indicates the date after which the manufacturer can no
longer guarantee the stability, safety and potency of a drug.
FEFO—A system of stock movement based on First to Expire First Out.
FIFO—A system of stock movement based on First In First Out.
Generic Name—A generic name is the unique INN given to the active ingredient(s) of a drug and
is recognized worldwide.
Generic Product—A generic product is a drug that is manufactured by an authorized manu-
facturer under nonproprietary or approved names. A generic product may be marketed under its
generic name or brand name.
Health Centre—The lowest level of public health care establishment to which qualified health work-
ers are deployed.
Health Committee—The committee selected from ordinary citizens in the community to over-
see the proper running of health facilities within the community, including the managing of drug
supplies.
Inventory—The sum of all items held in stock at any time.
International Nonproprietary Name (INN)—Internationally recognized name for a chemical
entity.
Labeling—Placing written or symbolic instructions on the immediate container in which drugs are
dispensed.
Prescriber—A qualified health worker authorized to write prescriptions.
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Prescribing—The act of determining what medication the patient should have and the correct
dosage and duration of treatment.
Prescription—A set of instructions written by a qualified or authorized prescriber to a dispenser
for supply of drugs and provision of information to the patient.
Procurement—The process of acquiring supplies, including those obtained by purchase, donation
and manufacture.
Rational Drug Use—The rational use of drugs implies the selection of an appropriate drug for
the correct patient; given in the correct dose, dosage form, route, frequency and duration. The
patient must also receive appropriate instructions on how to use the drugs.
RI—Stands for request indicator, the lowest stock level of a drug product before an order is placed
for new stock.
Revolving Drug Fund—A drug sales programme in which revenues from drug fees are used to
replenish drug supplies.
Shelf Life—The length of time a drug may be stored without affecting its usability, safety, purity or
potency.
Stock (Bin) Card—A card that records receipts, issues and balances of items held in a store. The
bin card is kept in the store with the physical stock.
Unit of Issue of Drug from the Dispensary—At the dispensary, the unit of issue is a tablet, cap-
sule, bottle or vial because only a few of those are dispensed to a patient.
Unit of Issue of Drug from the Store—The unit of issue for a request from the store is usually
full of tins, packets or boxes of say 1,000 tablets or 100 vials, as the case may be.
User Fees—Charges paid by the user for a service.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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Meinolf Kuper and Helen Tata. Bamenda, Cameroun. (1989). Guidelines for Managing a Pharmacy
(unpublished).
Management Sciences for Health and World Health Organization. (1997).
Managing Drug Supply. Boston.
World Health Organization, 1990 Management of Drugs at Health Centres.
WHO/DAP/90.10. Geneva: WHO.
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References
ANNEX 1
Pre-Test
Course on the Management of Drugs
at Health Centre Level
Please answer all questions.
Read instructions at the beginning of each section carefully.
Participant’s Name: ____________________________________________________________________________
Participant’s Profession:________________________________________________________________________
(eg, Registered Nurse, Enrolled Nurse, Medical Assistant, Clinical Officer, Other.)
Participant’s Station:____________________________________________________________________________
Time Allowed:1 Hour
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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Annexes
■
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
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Section A
Put a check (✓) against the correct answer for each question.
1. The Bamako Initiative is:
a) A strategy that seeks the involvement of local communities in financing and managing their
health care needs.
b) A procedure for managing health care needs.
c) A decision taken by the United Nations.
d) A drug supply system.
2. Dr ugs must be properly managed because:
a) They are expensive.
b) Availability must be guaranteed.
c) Waste must be minimized.
d) They must be used within a certain period.
3. An expiration date indicates:
a) The date on which the drug was manufactured.
b) The date that one may not use the drug again.
c) The period when the manufacture can no longer guarantee the quality, safety and potency
of a drug.
d) The date before which drugs become ineffective.
4. FIFO means:
a) First in first out.
b) First invoiced first out.
c) Free items first out.
d) Fill in forms only.
5. Bin cards are:
a) The same as stock cards.
b) Tools for the monitoring of stock movements.
c) Usually on stiff cardboard paper.
d) Kept in a filing cabinet.
6. The following entries should be made on the bin card:
a) The name of the patient.
b) The quantity of drug received.
c) The quantity of dr ug requested.
d) The quantity of drug issued.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
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7. Internal dr ug return is the:
a) Internal return of drugs to the patient.
b) Internal retur n of drugs to another pharmacy.
c) Retur n of drugs to the central store in case of expiration, damage or spoiled items.
d) Return of surplus items only.
8. A prescription should include the following:
a) The name of the prescriber.
b) The name of the health unit.
c) The signature of the prescriber.
d) The name of the patient.
9. When tablets/capsules are being dispensed for a patient:
a) Put all tablets/capsules in one envelope.
b) Use clean fingers.
c) Use a clean spatula.
d) Put each type of tablet/capsule in separate envelopes.
10. When liquid medicines are being dispensed for a patient:
a) Mix all liquids in one bottle.
b) Pour each liquid medicine in a separate bottle.
c) Use clean bottles.
d) The bottle you use does not matter.
11. Labels must be made on:
a) All envelopes before the tablets are packed in.
b) All bottles before liquids are put in.
c) All envelopes af ter tablets are put in.
d) None of the above.
12. A properly labeled container should have the following:
a) Name of the patient.
b) Name of the drug.
c) The strength and dose to be taken.
d) All of the above.
13. Instructions to the patient on the use of the medicine should be given:
a) In English.
b) In the language understood by the patient.
c) If it is at all necessar y.
d) Until the patient understands.
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Section B
Put a check (✓) against the answer which does not agree with the others.
14. Stocktaking should be done in the pharmacy:
a) Once every four years.
b) Each time there is a burglar y.
c) At least once ever y year.
d) Anytime it becomes necessary.
15. The doors of the pharmacy must:
a) Be transparent so that patients can see through.
b) Have a metal bar across with padlocks.
c) Have locks that are functioning well.
d) Have metallic door shutters.
16. The pharmacy must be handed over to another staff when going on:
a) Maternity leave.
b) Sick leave.
c) Annual leave.
d) Lunch break.
17. If there is a burglary in the pharmacy, carry out the following:
a) Do not enter the pharmacy.
b) Make a written report to the head of the health facility.
c) Do not infor m the police because this is an internal matter.
d) An inventory of the store is undertaken.
you do not agree with.
____ 1 8 . Supervision of the pharmacy can be done by anybody.
____ 1 9 . The supervisory team should give on-the-spot training to the dispensing staff.
____ 2 0 . When handing over the pharmacy to another staff, take away any money in your
keeping.
____ 2 1 . Generic products are normally cheaper than brand name products because there are no
patents to protect.
____ 2 2 . Dr ugs that have expired can still be used for some period.
____ 2 3 . The abbreviation “TDS” means twice daily.
____ 2 4 . Buffer stock is the same as security stock.
____ 2 5 . First in first out is equivalent to first expiry first out.
____ 2 6 . Request indicator (reorder level) is the lowest stock level of a given drug before an
order is placed for new stock.
____ 2 7 . A bin card is good for recording stock balances.
____ 2 8. It i s necessar y to be familiar with brand names as opposed to generic names of drugs.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
58
Section C
Put a “Y” (for “Yes”) against statements that you agree with, and an “N”(for “No”) against those
29. The table below is an example of a daily use record from Kawale Health Centre. Review the
entries and comment on the entry on 20/6, giving several possible reasons for the shortage.
Acetylsalicylic acid tablets 3000 mg
Date From/To Quantity Remarks
(1997) In Out Balance
(Tabs)
2/6 B/F 20
3/6 From dispensary store 1,000 1,020
4/6 To patients 60 960
5/6 To patients 48 912
6/6 To patients 84 828
9/6 To patients 60 768
10/6 To patients 84 684
11/6 To patients 84 600
12/6 To patients 120 480
13/6 To patients 48 432
16/6 To patients 150 282
17/6 To patients 84 198
18/6 To patients 60 138
19/6 To patients 96 42
20/6 Inventory 22 Shortage
23/6 From store 1,000 1,022
23/6 To patients 120 902
24/6 To patients 150 752
25/6 To patients 180 572
26/6 To patients 160 412
27/6 To patients 180 232
30/6 From store 1,000 1,232
30/6 To patients 240 992
Monthly consumption 2,008 Two tins used
for June 1997 for the month
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Section D
Solve the following problems.
Paracetamol 500 mg tablets; tin or container or box/1,000 tablets
Monthly consumption for proceeding six months is as follows:
4/04 6 x 1,000 tablets
5/04 5 x 1,000 tablets
6/04 4 x 1,000 tablets
7/04 3 x 1,000 tablets
8/04 7 x 1,000 tablets
9/04 4 x 1,000 tablets
Calculate: Assume a lead (delivery) time of 3 months.
The average monthly consumption:
The quantity you would request from your central store (HAS/CMS) in the following situations:
a) Balance in Stock: 4
b) Balance in Stock: 40 (all expiry date: Dec. 2004)
c) Balance in Stock: 6
Give possible reasons for the apparent large stock with limited shelf life (near expiration) in the
situation (b) above.
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
60
30. The following information was extracted from the bin card/stock card for paracetamol tablets
at the pharmacy store.
Post-Test
Course on the Management of Drugs
at the Health Centre Level
Evaluation Test
Please answer all questions.
Read instructions at the beginning of each section carefully.
Participant’s Name: ____________________________________________________________________________
Participant’s Profession (eg, Registered Nurse, Enrolled Nurse, Medical Assistant,
Clinical Officer, Other): ________________________________________________________________________
Participant’s Station:____________________________________________________________________________
Time Allowed:1.5 Hours
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
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ANNEX 2
■
62
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
Section A
Circle the correct answers (a question may have more than one correct answer).
1. The Essential Dr ugs Concept was conceived as a result of:
a) Too many useless drugs in the markets.
b) The increasing costs of drugs in the world market.
c) Scarce financial resources being spent on less important dr ug items.
d) Free health care services advocated by African governments.
2. Essential drugs are:
a) Those that do not satisfy most health care needs.
b) Of good quality and available at all times.
c) Always given in their brand names.
d) Usually not affordable.
3. The following statements can be associated with the Bamako Initiative:
a) Non-community participation in health care matters.
b) User fees for drugs.
c) Dr ug revolving fund.
d) Free health-care services.
4. HIV/AIDS can be:
a) Diagnosed.
b) Cured.
c) Treated.
d) Prevented by immunization.
5. Efficient management of drugs will:
a) Ensure constant supply.
b) Minimize wastage of resources.
c) Reduce prices of dr ugs.
d) Maximize adverse effects of drugs.
6. Buffer stock is:
a) The same as request quantity.
b) Security stock.
c) Not always necessar y.
d) All of the above.
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7. Cash obtained from the sale of drugs should be kept:
a) In the house.
b) In a safe in the dispensar y.
c) In the bank.
d) With a friend in the bank.
8. When there is a burglary in the dispensar y:
a) Do nothing.
b) Inform the head of the health centre.
c) Report to the police.
d) Take inventory.
9. An inventory is done in the pharmacy store:
a) When there is a burglary.
b) As necessar y when free time is available.
c) At the beginning or end of the year, at least.
d) When handing over.
10. Drug use involves the following:
a) Proper diagnosis of disease.
b) Proper and accurate writing of a prescription using a trade name.
c) Handing over the dr ug(s) to patient with appropriate information and counselling.
d) All of the above are correct.
11. A label on a container or package of a dispensed drug should have the following:
a) The cause or nature of illness.
b) The trade name of the drug.
c) The name and signature of the dispenser.
d) The quantity of drugs dispensed.
12. To ensure patient compliance to the prescribed drug, the dispenser should stress the following
points:
a) When and how to take the drug.
b) To share the drug(s) with the immediate members of the family to prevent the spread of
disease in the family.
c) To take all drugs on an empty stomach.
d) To take all drugs after food.
64
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
13. Good dispensing practice involves several steps, among them the following:
a) Interviewing the patient to establish the exact nature of the disease.
b) Interpreting the prescription in terms of the dose, the patient and the requirements of a
prescription.
c) Calculating and measuring out the required quantity of dr ug to be dispensed.
d) Recording details of the dispensed prescription to ensure accountability among other
reasons.
14. Estimation of drugs required for a given period is undertaken for the following reasons:
a) To avoid theft/pilferage.
b) To avoid stock outs.
c) To attract more patients to visit the centre.
d) To prevent excess stock and therefore wastage through expiry.
15. When calculating monthly consumption of tetracycline, the most accurate figures would be
obtained for:
a) Consumption for 6 months.
b) Consumption for 12 months.
c) Consumption for 24 months.
d) Consumption for 4 months.
16. When completing a stores requisition/delivery form, the following information should be filled
accurately:
a) Average monthly consumption.
b) Name of drug and dosage for m.
c) Lead time.
d) Unit of issue and quantity requested.
17. When receiving drugs at the health centre, ensure that:
a) All the drugs are coming from district hospital stores.
b) Drugs received are not expired.
c) Quantity issued cor responds to quantity indicated on the stores requisition/delivery form.
d) The drug box is opened when those delivering are gone.
18. When selecting drugs, one looks at the:
a) Disease pattern of the area under consideration.
b) Preference for drugs that are most popular among the community.
c) Seasonal variation in disease patter ns.
d) Availability of drugs for the treatment of the most prevalent diseases, ailments, sicknesses
and so forth at the given level of care.
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19. Drug selection is influenced a lot by:
a) National Health Policy.
b) National Drug Policy.
c) Quantity and type of care provided.
d) Available human resources.
20. In the push system of distribution:
a) No ordering of drugs is done.
b) No inventor y is taken.
c) No expiration dates are checked.
d) No management skills are required.
21. A stock card should have the following information:
a) The manufacturer of the drug.
b) Expiration date of the drug.
c) Quantity of dr ug received.
d) Quantity of drug issued.
22. Receipt entry shows:
a) Date of manufacture of the drug.
b) Reference number of supplies.
c) Amount of dr ugs received.
d) One month’s consumption.
23. The following measures will ensure that temperatures in the drug store remain favourable for
the storage of drugs.
a) Painting walls with black paint.
b) Installing heaters at regular inter vals.
c) Leaving windows open over night to allow air circulation.
d) Installing air conditioners that will maintain a temperature below 245 degrees C.
66
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
Section B
24. Name the four main steps (in logical sequence) in the drug management cycle:
a) __________________________________________________________________________________________
b)__________________________________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________________________________
d)__________________________________________________________________________________________
25. List six entries that should be made on a new stock card:
a) __________________________________________________________________________________________
b)__________________________________________________________________________________________
c) __________________________________________________________________________________________
d)__________________________________________________________________________________________
e) __________________________________________________________________________________________
f) __________________________________________________________________________________________
26. Enter the following transactions on the stock card below:
In January 2001, Mabote Clinic received from the QE II hospital 60 tins of a new item in the
store called Niverapine 60 mg tablets. During January, two tins of 500 tablets were issued to
the dispensing area. In February, five tins were issued, and in the next two successive months,
six and seven tins were issued respectively. Finally during the last four months, six, eight, nine
and ten tins were issued, respectively.
a) What is the average monthly consumption of niverapine? ________________________________
b) Assuming the lead time is one month, what is the request indicator? ____________________
c) Assuming the lead time is one month, what is the quantity to be ordered? ______________
d) Assuming the lead time is two months, what is the quantity to be ordered? ______________
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
67
Dispensary Store________Stock Card No. ______________________________
Item: ______________________ Dosage ________________ Unit of Issue ________________ R I ____
Date Ref. From/To Quantity Balance Cost Remarks Sign.
No. In Out
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
27. You are responsible for prescribing drugs at the Domicillary Health Centre in Maseru. You
diagnose a 3-year-old baby, Thato Mosenene, weighing 15 Kg, with pneumonia and fever. The
drug of choice is amoxycillin 15 mg/kg orally every 8 hours for 10 days. Calculate the dose to
be given every eight hours to the baby assuming a syrup presentation of amoxycillin contain-
ing 250 mg/5 ml is available.
Answer: (a) ______________ mg
Answer: (b) ______________ ml
28. On a separate page, using the accepted standard abbreviations, write a complete prescription
for Baby Thato for dispensing by another nurse.
29. Give four reasons why drugs should be stored in appropriate storage areas.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
30. What do the following stand for?
a) FIFO
b) FEFO
c) Which of the above stock movement systems would reduce loss due to the expiration of
drugs?
__________________________
31. Why is it important to use generic names of dr ugs when they are being procured or
prescribed? Give three reasons.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
68
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
ANNEX 3
Proposed Training Outline
Subject Area Subject Area Duration Methods Materials
Evaluation: To conduct a pre-test
1/
2 hr. Pre-test Questions ( Trainers will
Pre-Test to assess participants’ select the appropriate questions
understanding of drug from a bank of questions.)
managements.
A. Principles To review the components 2
1/
2 hrs. Trainer–Lecture Visual Aids
of Drug of the drug management Participants– Work Sheet
Management cycle; Group Work and Transparencies
presentation Attitude Question 8
To discuss with participants (Reasons for
why drug management managements
is important. of drugs)
B. Selection of To describe the principles 2
3/
4 hrs. Trainer–Lecture Visual Aids
Drugs of drug selection; Participants– Work Sheet–EDL of Malawi
Group Work and Transparencies
To emphasize the impor- Report back Attitude Question 1
tance of using generic (Prepare a list
name drugs; of essential drugs
for their health
To e xplain the basis for facility)
selecting drugs for health
centres;
To assist participants to
draw up a list of drugs for
their facilities.
C. Procurement To define information 4 hrs. Trainer–Lecture Visual Aids
of Drugs and sources for determining Data entry Calculators
Estimation drug requirements; exercises Work Sheets
of Drug
Requirements To show participants
how to:
■
Calculate drug require-
ments
■
Estimate re-order levels
■
Estimate delivery time
■
Calculate average
monthly consumption
from a bin card
■
Determine RI for five
drugs of different
dosage forms.
■
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
69
Subject Area Subject Area Duration Methods Materials
D. Drug To review: 1
1/
2 hrs. Trainer–Lecture and Visual Aids
Requisition
■
Components of a drug Interactive Attitude Question 2
requisition form demonstration
■
Procedures to follow in
drug requisition;
To show participants how to
complete drug requisition/
delivery form, including cost
calculations.
E. Supply and To describe: 2 hrs. Trainer–Lecture Visual Aids
Receipt of
■
Procedures of receipt of
Drugs drugs into stores and the
detection of discrepancies
in supplies
■
Procedures for internal
return of drugs and posting
onto bin cards;
To show participants how to
receive drugs from stores;
To update stock cards;
To identify near expired or
damaged items;
To complete procedure for
return of damaged or near-
expired items.
F. Distribution of To describe: 1 hr. Trainer–Lecture Requisition for
Drugs
■
Movement of drugs from drugs, push/pull
central level to the user systems
unit level
■
Push/pull systems.
G. Storage of To review the correct arrange- 4 hrs. Trainer–Briefing for Visual Aids
Drugs ments of drugs in the store and Field Trip Calculators
at the dispensary; Work Sheets
To emphasize the importance Field Trip report on: Health Facilities (3)–
of FIFO and FEFO;
■
Storage arrangement Central Store,
■
Keeping of stock Health Centre
Participants should be able to: (bin) card Attitude Question 3
■
Arrange drugs in a store
■
Daily use of record;
properly
■
Observe dispensing;
■
Maintain a clean store;
■
5 positive and 5
negative overall
observations.
70
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
Proposed Training Outline(cont.)
Subject Area Subject Area Duration Methods Materials
To show participants how to:
■
Maintain stock (bin) cards
daily use record
■
Make entries in stock cards
daily use record.
H. Drug Use To describe the correct way of 2
3/
4 hrs. Trainer–Lecture Visual Aids
writing a prescription; Discussion– Examples of prescriptions
Communication Skills Visual Aids
To detect errors in prescriptions; Participants
Setting of a dispensary–
To describe the principles of drugs receipts, record
communication with patients; forms, kind of labels,
prescriptions, etc.
To emphasize the need for Counting tray
patient compliance and Containers
precautions with drugs (keep Attitude Question 4
out of reach of children);
Attitude Question 5
To describe the way of:
■
Dispensing
■
Keeping dispensing records;
To show participants how to:
■
Count or measure drugs to
be dispensed
■
Record transactions
■
Package and label
appropriately;
To ensure that participants can
read and understand
prescriptions; and determine
quantities of drugs to be
prescribed and/or dispensed;
To ensure dispensing of drugs to
the right patient, in the right
amount, correct container and
adequately labelled;
To e xplain why drugs should not
be given on credit.
I. Stock To review inventory taking and 2
1/
2 hrs. Trainer–Lecture Visual Aids
Management record keeping (stock bin cards, Data Entry Exercises Forms
daily use records); Attitude Questions 6
and 7
To show participants how to:
■
Maintain stock (bin) cards and
daily use records
■
Make entries in stock cards
and daily use records;
To review the importance of:
■
Keeping good records
■
Storage of forms/documents.
J. Handing Over To give an overview of handing-
1/
2 hr. Trainer–Lecture Visual Aids
over procedures; and Discussion
To show participants how to
prepare handing-over notes.
K. Custody of To describe procedures for
1/
2 hr. Trainer–Lecture Visual Aids
Cash handling cash and how to keep and Discussion
accounting.
L. Security and To describe security procedures 1 hr. Trainer–Lecture Visual Aids
Burglary and how to respond to a and Discussion
burglary;
To protect property and report
theft.
M. Supervision To describe the requirements of
1/
2 hr. Lecture/Discussioin Visual Aids
supervision.
N. Final To conduct an evaluation test to 1
1/
2 hrs. Closed Book Questions (based on
Examination assess participants’ Examination lectures given)
understanding of drug
management.
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
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Subject Area Subject Area Duration Methods Materials
72
Management of Drugs at Health Centre Level
ANNEX 4
Field Visit Checklist
Terms of Reference Findings Remarks (satisfactory or not)
1. General cleanliness of the premises, including
shelves and dispensing counter/table. ______________________________________________
2. Refrigerator, where available, in good working
condition, clean and tidy and is not used to store
nonmedical items such as food. ______________________________________________
3. Floors, walls, windows and ceiling in good repair. ______________________________________________
4. Orderly placing of drugs on shelves, pallets and
dispensing counters. ______________________________________________
5. Condition of the stock containers, dirty/clean. ______________________________________________
6. Closures on containers replaced after dispensing. ______________________________________________
7. Storage conditions prevailing in the dispensary.
Principle of FEFO/FIFO adhered to. ______________________________________________
8. Health workers’ cleanliness, laboratory coats, etc. ______________________________________________
9. Management tools: stock records, prescription
records and epidemiological data. ______________________________________________
10. Dispenser highly motivated and adequately
trained. ______________________________________________
11. Dispensing of medicines: labelling, packing
adequate. ______________________________________________
12. Use of generic names in prescribing or
dispensing. ______________________________________________
13. Patient reception and attitude of the health
worker. ______________________________________________
14. How easy is it for a patient visiting for the first
time to find his or her way? ______________________________________________
15. Information, particularly on drugs, accessible to
health workers. ______________________________________________
16. Management systems: determination of quantity
to order, lead time analysis, reorders level, stock-
taking, and disposal of expired stock. ______________________________________________
■
Course Evaluation
1. Profession:__________________________________________________________________________________
2. Number of years of working experience: ____________________________________________________
Excellent Good Fair Poor
3. Organization of workshop
■■ ■■ ■■ ■■
(e.g. food, facilities, etc.)
4. Lectures/presentations
■■ ■■ ■■ ■■
5. Relevance of training to your work
■■ ■■ ■■ ■■
Yes No
6. Were any of the topics difficult to understand?
If yes, specify the topic(s)____________________________________________
■■ ■■
7. Was the time adequate for each of the topics?
If no, specify the topic(s) ____________________________________________
■■ ■■
8. Were the topics handled effectively by the facilitators?
If no, specify the topic(s) ____________________________________________
■■ ■■
9. Have you gained any new useful knowledge?
■■ ■■
10. Does the manual improve your understanding
of drug management?
If no, give a brief account about what needs to be improved.
■■ ■■
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
11. If you have any additional comments, use the space below and on the back of the page.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
For further information please contact:
World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa
73
ANNEX 5
■
inside back cover
For further information please contact:
The Regional Director
WHO Regional Office for Africa
Attention:Dr Moses Chisale
Regional Advisor for Pharmaceuticals
P.O. Box 6
Brazzaville
Republic of Congo
Telephone: +47 241 39498, +47 241 39253
Facsimile: +47 241 39501,+47 241 39511
Email:
chisalem@afro.who.int
back cover
